Mutarotation, discovered by Augustin Pierre Dubrunfaut in 1844, is the interconversion of alpha(α) and beta(β) anomeric forms of cyclic sugars. This interconversion is the change in the optical rotation property which develops over time. Mutarotation …
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Epimers are stereoisomers, and to be exact, they are a pair of diastereomers with more than one chiral center but differ only at one of those chiral centers. Diastereomers are non-superimposable and non-mirror, images of …
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‘Inter‘ means ‘between’ as happening between two things, shows that the term ‘intermolecular forces’ refers to the electrostatic forces of attraction or repulsion between molecules. Another similar term, ‘intramolecular forces’ means the forces present between …
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The zeroth law of thermodynamics states that; “If two bodies are in thermal equilibrium with a third body, they are in thermal equilibrium with each other as well” The law of thermal equilibrium, the zeroth …
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Glucose, also known as dextrose is the most common simple sugar (monosaccharide). It has two isomeric structures, i.e. dextrose-(D) glucose and Lactose-(L) glucose. The dextrose-(D) glucose contains two further isomers, i.e. alpha (α) and beta …
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Acetal and Hemiacetal are the main classes of carbohydrates i.e. organic compounds that differ in their functionality based on differences in the number of ether linkages present. Acetals are compounds with two ether (-OR) linkages …
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Aldoses and ketoses and monosaccharides (simple sugar molecules) with differences in the type of functional groups. Aldoses are monosaccharide molecules containing the aldehyde functional group. They have a general formula Cn(H2O)n and occur as both D …
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There are different types of chemical reactions. Among the most common are hydrolysis and dehydration. In addition to their experimental and industrial use, these two reactions are important in biological systems, especially in metabolic activities …
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Molarity and molality both measure the concentration of solutions. Molarity (M) is the measure of moles of solute per liter of solution. Whereas molality (m) is the measure of moles of solute per kilogram of …
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Chemical indicators are organic substances that are used to determine the endpoint. Indicators are generally weak acids or weak bases. Indicators change their colors at a certain pH range due to ionization. Unionized forms essentially …
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A mixture is a blend of two or more substances when each of them has its own identification and properties. The resultant mixture can be solid, liquid, or gas. Primarily, a mixture can be homogeneous …
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Colligative properties are the properties that originate in solutions upon addition of solutes. These are the physical changes dependent on the quantity of both solute and solvent constituting the understudy solution. Colligative properties are dependent …
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Enols are alkenes with alcoholic functional groups. Enolates are the conjugate bases while enamines are the nitrogen analogs of such enols. In other words, enols are the organic compounds with alkene and alcoholic functional groups …
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Randles-Sevcik equation is the formulated mathematical equation to calculate the peak current (ip) using scan rate (v) in an observed voltammogram. For redox reaction cycles like ferrocene/ferrocenium couple, peak current (ip) depends on the concentration …
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Recrystallization is a separation technique used to separate compounds based on their different solubilities at different temperatures. Usually, recrystallization is used to separate compounds with significantly large differences in volumes, i.e. to separate impurities from …
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The main difference between polar and nonpolar bonds is their electronegativity. The greater the electronegativity difference between the bonded atoms greater is the polarity. Both polar and nonpolar bonds are covalent bonds. However, polar bonds …
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An enone is an unsaturated functional group consisting of a conjugated system of an alkene and ketonic group. Enal on the other hand is a similar unsaturated functional group with alkene and aldehydic groups attached …
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A geometrical arrangement of molecular atoms having three branches or atoms connected to a central atom is called trigonal geometry. Now that there are different combinations of this type of geometry, trigonal pyramidal and trigonal …
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Solvents are broadly classified into two types, polar and nonpolar solvents. Polar solvents are further divided into protic and aprotic solvents. Concisely, the difference between protic and aprotic solvents can be written as: “Protic …
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There are five basic types of chemical reactions namely synthesis, decomposition, displacement, double displacement, and combustion reactions. Understanding these types of reactions will be useful in predicting the products of chemical reactions when given only …
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Lewis acids and Lewis bases can be defined as chemical species, capable of transferring an electron pair from one species to another by a sort of donation. The result is the formation of a coordinate …
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Intensive and extensive properties are the two types of physical properties. The properties which can be observed and measured easily are called physical properties. For example color, melting point, boiling point, temperature, and odor, etc …
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The compounds having a carbonyl (>C=O) group are called carbonyl compounds. In a carbonyl group, there is a double bond between carbon and oxygen atom, and the carbon is further attached to hydrogens or carbons …
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The apparent charge assigned to an atom in a molecule is termed formal charge. It is a representation of charge distribution in a molecule assuming that all electrons are equidistant from bonding atoms with no …
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Atomic emission spectroscopy (AES) is an analytical technique used for the quantification of metal atoms by measuring the intensity of light emitted by the atoms in excited states. When an excited atom returns to the …
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